Wendy Doniger on Horse Sacrifice

Table Of Contents

CREATION
DEATH
THE ELEMENTS OF SACRIFICE
THE HORSE SACRIFICE
GODS OF THE SACRIFICE: AGNI AND SOMA
SOMA
INDRA
GODS OF THE STORM
SOLAR GODS
SKY AND EARTH
VARUNA
RUDRA AND VISNU
REALIA
WOMEN
INCANTATIONS AND SPELLS

THE HORSE SACRIFICE

As the supreme symbol of the victorious Indo-Europeans, the horse looms large in the Rig Veda, and many gods are called horses – Indra, Dadhikra, Surya, Agni, Soma, the Dawn, and others. In addition to its role as signifier, however, the horse also appears as signified in a group of hymns about the sacrifice of the consecrated stallion, a ceremony that was to become the subject of far more detailed and lengthy discussion in the texts of the Brahmanas a few centuries later.

The horse in the Rig Veda is at least three things at once: a real, material creature whose domestication enabled the Indo-Aryans to conquer the Indo-European world; a racehorse that ran in profane and sacred contests; and a precious sacrificial victim. In these three hymns, the horse – in all three of these aspects – is praised, killed, and lamented.

1.163   Hymn to the Horse

The sacrificial horse is identified with the sun and fire; here he is also identified with several other gods, as well as with the earthly racehorse (who is himself a figure with whom many gods are identified).

1 When you whinnied for the first time, as you were born coming forth from the ocean or from the celestial source,¹ with the wings of an eagle and the forelegs of an antelope – that, Swift Runner, was your great and awesome birth.

2 Yama gave him and Trita harnessed him; Indra was the first to mount him, and the Gandharva grasped his reins. You gods² fashioned the horse out of the sun.

3 Swift Runner, you are Yama; you are Aditya; you are Trita, through the hidden design.³ You are like and not like Soma.⁴ They say you have three bonds in the sky.⁵

4 They say you have three bonds in the sky, three in the waters, and three within the ocean.^{6 And to me you appear, Swift Runner, like Varuna, that is said to be your highest birth.}

5 These are the places where they rubbed you down when you were victorious; here are the marks where you put down your hooves. Here I saw your lucky reins, which the Guardians of the Order keep safely.

6 From afar, in my heart I recognized your soul, the bird⁷ f;ying below the sky. I saw your winged head snorting on the dustless paths easy to travel.⁸

7 Here I saw your highest form eager for nourishment in the place of the cow.⁹ As soon as a mortal gets the food that you enjoy, the great devourer of plants awakens him.¹⁰

8 The chariot follows you, Swift Runner; the young man follows, the cow follows, the love of young girls follows. The troops follow your friendship.¹¹ The gods entrusted

virile power to you.

9 His mane is golden;¹² his feet are bronze. He is swift as thought, faster than Indra. The gods have come to eat the oblation of the one who was the rst to mount the swift runner.¹³

10 The celestial coursers, revelling in their strength, fly in a line like wild geese, the ends held back while the middle surges forward, when the horses reach the racecourse of the sky.

11 Your body flies, Swift Runner; your spirit rushes like wind. Your mane,¹² spread in many directions, flickers and jumps about in the forests.¹⁴

12 The racehorse has come to the slaughter, pondering with his heart turned to the gods. The goat, his kin,¹⁵ is led in front; behind come the poets, the singers.

13 The swift runner has come to the highest dwelling-place, to his father and mother. May he go to the gods today and be most welcome, and then ask for the things that the worshipper wishes for.

NOTES

1. A possible reference to the sun born in the ocean and also born from the waters in the sky.

2. The Vasus are a group of gods associated with the sun.

3. Perhaps the magic power of the sacrifice, or the secret power associated with the mysterious Trita, or simply the “Vedic power of secret equivalences.

4. As Agni, he is both likened to and contrasted with Soma through the mechanism of parallel oppositions and the Vedic concept of liquid fire or the fiery liquid; as a sacrificial animal, he is joined with Soma in the ritual dimension.

5. The bonds are the three gods named in the first sentence of this verse.

6. The three bonds are multiples of the bond in. each of three places named: the sky (v. 3, and the ‘highest birth’ in Varuna), the waters (v. 1, and perhaps also v. 5, where the gods bathed the celestial horse), and the ocean (v. 1, and also implicit in the birth from Varuna, god of the ocean).

7. The sun as a bird.

8. The paths that lead to the sun.

9. the cows won by the victorious racehorse ; and as the cattle won in raids on horseback.

10. A mysterious sentence. Agni, who devours plants (in forest fires), awakens man every morning (as the sun); the herbivorous horse also devours plants, and is awakened every morning to be fed. The worshipper who ‘feeds’ the sacrificial fire (or offers

oblations to the sun) is ‘awakened’ when he arrives in heaven. All of these are possible (as the final ‘him’ must be supplied and has no clear referent).

11. A martial procession behind the war-horse; a sacrificial procession behind the consecrated stallion; a triumphant procession behind the racehorse.

12. The mane (literally, the ‘horns’) of the horse as a metaphor for the rays of the sun.

13. ‘The one’ would be Indra, rider of the solar horse according to verse 2, but here it would seem to designate the earthly king, the owner of the earthly horse.

14. Here the rays are scattered by the foliage.

15. Either a scapegoat for the sacrificial horse (cf. 1.162.2-3), or just a companion for the racehorse (as racehorses often have goats, to this day).

1.162   The Sacrifice of the Horse

Strikingly concrete in its detail, this hymn describes the ancient Indian horse sacrifice, beginning with the ceremonial procession of the horse with the scapegoat, leading to the actual slaughter (vv. 1-7). It then dwells upon the material instruments of the sacrifice which are to accompany the horse to heaven.

1 Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman the Active,¹ Indra the ruler of the Rbhus,² and the Maruts³- let them not fail to heed us when we proclaim in the assembly the heroic deeds of the racehorse who was born of the gods.⁴

2 When they lead the firmly grasped offering⁵ in front of the horse that is covered with cloths and heirlooms, the dappled goat goes bleating straight to the dear dwelling of Indra and Pusan.

3 This goat for all the gods is leds forward with the racehorseas the share for Pusan. When they lead forth the welcome offering⁵ with the charger, Tvastr urges him on to great fame.

4 When, as the ritual law ordains, the men circle three times, leading the horse that is to be the oblation on the path to the gods, the goat who is the share for Pusan goes first, announcing the sacrifice to the gods.

5 The Invoker,⁶ the officiating priest, the atoner,⁷ the re-kindler, the holder of the pressing-stones, the reciter, the priest who prays – fill your bellies with this well- prepared, well-sacrificed sacrifice.

6 The hewers of the sacrificial stake and those who carry it, and those who carve the knob ⁸ for the horse’s sacrificial stake, and those who gather together the things⁹ to cook the charger – let their approval encourage us.

7 The horse with his smooth back went forth into the elds of the gods, just when I made my prayer. The inspired sages exult in him. We have made him a welcome companion at the banquet of the gods.

8 The charger’s rope and halter, the reins and bridle on his head, and even the grass that has been brought up to his mouth – let all of that stay with you¹⁰ even among the gods.

9 Whatever of the horse’s flesh the fly has eaten, or whatever stays stuck to the stake or the axe, or to the hands or nails of the slaughterer¹¹ – let all of that stay with you¹⁰ even among the gods.

10 Whatever food remains in his stomach, sending forth gas, or whatever smell there is from his raw flesh¹¹ – let the slaughterers make that well done; let them cook the sacrificial animal until he is perfectly cooked.

11 Whatever runs off your body when it has been placed on the spit and roasted by the fire, let it not lie here in the earth or on the grass, but let it be given to the gods who long for it.

12 Those¹² who see that the racehorse is cooked, who say, ‘It smells good! Take it away!’, and who wait or the doling out of the flesh of the charger – let their approval encourage us.

13 The testing fork for the cauldron that cooks the flesh, the pots for pouring the broth, the cover of the bowls to keep it warm, the hooks, the dishes – all these attend the horse.

14 The place where he walks, where he rests, where he rolls, and the fetters on the horse’s feet, and what he has drunk and the fodder he has eaten – let all of that stay with you¹⁰ even among the gods.

15 Let not the fire that reeks of smoke darken you, nor the red-hot cauldron split into pieces. The gods receive the horse who has been sacrificed, worshipped, consecrated, and sanctified with the cry of ‘Vasat!’¹³

16 The cloth that they spread beneath the horse, the upper covering, the golden trappings on him, the halter and the fetters on his feet – let these things that are his own bind the horse among the gods.

17 If someone riding you has struck you too hard with heel or whip when you shied, I make all these things well again for you with prayer,¹¹ as they do¹⁴ with the oblation’s ladle in sacrifices.

18 The axe cuts through the thirty-four ribs¹⁵ of the race horse who is the companion of the gods. Keep the limbs undamaged and place them in the proper pattern. Cut them apart, calling out piece by piece.¹⁶

19 One is the slaughterer of the horse of Tvastr; two restrain him. This is the rule. As many of your limbs as I set out, according to the rules, so many balls I offer into the fire.¹⁷

20 Let not your dear soul burn you¹⁸ as you go away. Let not the axe do lasting harm to your body. Let no greedy, clumsy slaughterer hack in the wrong place and damage your limbs with his knife.

21 You do not really die through this, nor are you harmed. You go to the gods on paths pleasant to go on. The two bay stallions, the two roan mares¹⁹ are now your chariot mates. The racehorse has been set in the donkey’s yoke.

22 Let this racehorse bring us good cattle and good horses, male children and all- nourishing wealth. Let Aditi make us free from sin.²⁰ Let the horse with our offerings achieve sovereign power for us.

NOTES

1. This may be an epithet of Vayu or Agni, or the name of a distinct god, or an epithet of Aryaman.

2. The Rbhus are the craftsmen of the gods.

3. This may be a list of five gods or of seven, depending upon whether one takes the adjectival terms as epithets or separate names.

4. Sayana says the horse was born from the essential forms of many gods, a common form of mythological creation.

5. This almost certainly refers to the goat, though the commentary suggests that it might be the remains of the burnt offering made the night before.

6. The Invoker is the Hotr priest, often identified with Agni. Cf. 1.1.1.

7. This term may designate the priest who portions out the offerings or the one who performs expiations for ritual errors or personal misdeeds (cf. v. 17). Here, as in verse 1, there may be five or seven terms, depending upon whether one takes the adjectival terms (here the third and seventh) as descriptions or separate titles.

8. A piece of wood attached crosswise at the top of the stake.

9. These utensils would be the pot, the wood, etc.

10. Here the horse is directly addressed.

11. Cf. the hope that the human corpse will be made whole (10.16.6) and properly cooked (10.16.1-2).

12. These are the priests who eat the horse (cf. v. 5).

13. The cry that is made when the offering is presented to the gods. Cf. 10.14.3 for the use of Svaha !, a similar call.

14. The Brahmins who repair the errors committed in the course of the sacrifice.

15. Thirty-four of the horse’s ribs (he has thirty-six) are distributed, one to the sun, one to the moon, five to the planets, and twenty-seven to the constellations.

16. The priest names each part as he cuts it, and declares the divinity to whom it is dedicated.

17. These are probably balls of rice that the wives of the king give to the stallion ; they may also be balls of meat.

18. That is, do not be sad.

19. The two bay stallions are the horses of Indra, the two roan mares the horses of the Maruts, and the donkey belongs to the Asvins.

20. This is both a general wish for expiation and a specific wish to be cleansed of the sin of killing the horse.

10.56   Requiem for a Horse

This hymn is a funerary farewell to a beloved horse. Against this interpretation, later Indian commentarial tradition suggested that the subject of the hymn was the poet’s dead son, called ‘Victorious Racehorse’ (Vajin); and it is worthy of note that the horse is said to travel to heaven, put on a new body, and dwell happily there afterwards, just as the dead man does in another hymn (10.14). But the equine character of the verses is unmistakable. The hymn may refer to a particular ritual, possibly even to the immolation of a sacred horse; verse 3 opens with the exact phrase used at the beginning of the horse sacrifice. It may also be based upon the deification of a great racehorse, as is suggested by the hymn’s recurring use of the metaphor of winning heaven as one wins a race (though here it must be noted that the Rig Veda often refers to other goals – wealth, sons, long life – won as one wins a race).¹ The idea of a hymn to a horse is not in itself un-Vedic; the Rig Veda knows other divine horses, such as Dadhikra, Tarksya, and Etasa. The horses of heaven are obliquely alluded to in verse 4, where they are said to have more powers than the Fathers and to have been given special mental power by the gods before taking on their heavenly bodies; verse 5 may even imply that all living creatures are somehow bound to or encompassed by the powers of these celestial equines, who gallop around a racecourse made of the space between sky and earth.

Versa 1-5a describe the horse’s translation heaven, where he is given a new body, gathering into it the qualities that it had on earth (verse 4). He changes into this body as the sun changes its form (verse 2); the sun is also alluded to as the ‘light beyond’ (verse 1), mediating between the light here ( fire, probably the funeral pyre) and the third light (the light in the world of the dead). The ‘god who finds the light’ (verse 6) may also be the sun; it may, however, be the spirit who leads the horse to the world of the dead, the third light; in general, the term often refers to Agni, Soma, or the Fathers, any of whom would be appropriate here. The final verses speak of the body in more general terms, contrasting the body put on in heaven with the body left on earth in the form of o spring.

1 This is your one light, and there beyond is your other; merge with the third light. By merging with a body, grow lovely, dear to the gods in the highest birthplace.

2 Victorious racehorse, let your body, carrying a body,² bring blessings to us and safety to you. Staying straight,³ so that you may carry the great gods, change your own light

as one does in heaven.

3 You are a victorious racehorse with the power to win victory; go happily to the mares who long for you. Go happily to fame and heaven; go happily to the first orders and truths, go happily to the gods, go happily to your flight.

4 Even the Fathers have no control over their⁴ majesty; the gods have placed the power of understanding in the gods.⁵ They⁴ have gathered together all things that shine, and these have entered their⁴ bodies again.

5 With their great powers they have circled all the middle realm of space, measuring out ancient domains never measured before. All creatures are bound to their bodies.⁶ They shower down their off spring in many ways.

6 By the third action, and in two ways,⁷ the sons have set in place the god ⁸ who finds the light. The fathers have established their own o spring as paternal power, like a thread stretched out among those who are to follow.

7 As if on a ship sailing through high water to all horizons of the earth, crossing over all dangers with ease, Brhaduktha⁹ has through his great power established his own off spring among those who are to follow and those who have come before.

NOTES

1. Cf. especially the racehorses of Dawn, 1.92.7.

2. The image of the horse carrying a rider (a body carrying a body) suggests the re carrying the dead body to heaven and going on (v. 3) to carry the oblation to the gods. Cf. Agni, the horse, as the conveyer, in 1.26.1, 5.2.1 and 10.51.6.

3. Both straight on the path and with a straight (i.e. uncollapsed) back under the weight.

4. ‘They’ are the horses; the shining things enter the horses’ bodies, as the god-inspired powers enter their minds.

5. The gods in heaven give inspiration to the ‘gods’ newly made, the horses who succeed in reaching heaven.

6. This may refer to the heavenly horses of verses 4-5 or imply that each creature is bound to his own body.

7. The third action is the begetting of children, the ‘debt’ each Hindu must pay to the Fathers (the first two debts being Vedic study, paid to the sages, and sacrifice, paid to the gods). The ‘two ways ‘ may refer to sons and fathers, achieving their ends on earth

(by children) and in heaven (by ritual). 8. The sun is here called an Asura, an ancient god.

9. Name of the sage to whom the hymn is attributed.